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--- Mohamed Ali Sons --- |
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Abbas succeeded his grandfather, Mohamed
Ali, as wali (viceroy) of Egypt in 1848.
Abbas had an unpleasant character. He was gallant and xenophobic. He
directed his efforts to abolish all modernization and westernization paces
taken by his grandfather. He expelled the foreign experts and closed
secular schools. Abbas was regarding industry as a waste of money and so
he gave much of his attention to agriculture.
In 1851, however, Abbas granted a railway concession to the British.
Unwilling to challenge the Ottomans anymore, Abbas worked to improve
relations with the Ottoman Porte. He had an intention to restore Egypt to
the Ottoman fold.
In his reign, negotiations with Ottomans took place over the introduction
of a new Ottoman legal code.
Besides, Abbas sent an Egyptian force to support the Ottomans in the
Crimean War.
In spite of all this pro-Ottoman inclination, Abbas still wanted to
preserve the autonomy of his rule.
In 1854, Abbas was killed in obscure circumstances. Said, Abbas's uncle
and son of Mohamed Ali, succeeded him.
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Said, Mohamed Ali's son, succeeded his
nephew Abbas as a viceroy. Unlike Abbas, Said continued the modernization
policies of his father.
In the first year of his rule, the new Ottoman legal code was finally
implemented. Said also continued to support the Ottomans in the Crimean
War with Egyptian troops.
In the next year, Said had the new railway between Cairo and Alexandria
completed and began further extensions in the railway project.
Said pursed efforts to Egyptianize the government so he replaced the
Turkish language with Arabic in the administration.
He was also responsible for the reforms of land laws and the establishment
of the first bank in Egypt.
In 1856, Said gave Ferdinand de Lesseps the Suez Canal concession.
The concession was unfavorable to Egypt. The Egyptian side was required to
provide workers and diggers of whom more than 100 thousands died. Said had
to secure a foreign loan in order to finance his share in the canal. This
increased the Egyptian national debt.
In 1857, other concessions were given to establish the telegram system and
a Nile steamship company.
In 1858, the full railway line connecting between Cairo, Alexandria and
Suez was opened.
Said died in 1863 and was succeeded by his other nephew Ismail, son of his
brother Tusun.
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Ismail was a visionary leader who had his own dreams for a
modern European-style Egypt, just like his grandfather, Mohamed Ali.
Few years after this accession to the throne, Ismail tried to gain
independence by bribing Ottoman officials and doubling the tribute sent to
the Ottoman Porte.
His efforts were reaped in gaining the right of primogeniture instead of
seniority in the inheritance of rule. Ismail was also granted the title of
Khedive, a Persian title that means prince, in 1867. This was to
differentiate his autonomy from other Ottoman provinces.
The same year saw the start of the postal services.
In 1869 Suez Canal was inaugurated in a splendid ceremony. The canal,
which claimed the life of 100 thousand Egyptian diggers and overburdened
the economy, was now to add to Egypt's strategic position. Ismail invited
dignitaries like Empress Eugenie of France, princes of Prussia, Sweden,
Hesse and Netherlands, and many other distinguished guests.
Ismail had well prepared for the ceremony. He built palaces in the new
cities along the canal. He paved roads for the procession of the
dignitaries and lightened them.
An opera house was built for that occasion and famous Italian composer
Giuseppe Verdi was assigned to compose his famous masterpiece Aida but
since costumes could not be ready in time Rigoletto was performed instead.
Ismail put the country on show, inviting guests to lavish banquets and
splendid balls. This cost him millions and encumbered the country with
more debts.
And in 1873 Ismail's efforts with the Ottoman sultan -aimed at gaining
more concessions- were paid off by an Ottoman decree to grant him virtual
autonomy.
Ismail, who embarked upon the second modernization wave of the country
after Mohamed Ali, built residential quarters in Cairo and Alexandria of
European style, installing all up-to-date infrastructures like sewage.
Ismail also realized the importance of education so he re-sent educational
delegations to Europe, particularly France, and reopened secular schools.
Also because of his efforts, the Egyptian museum and the Geographical
Society were opened in Egypt.
Ismail also introduced an administration reform. He had some interest in
agriculture so he expanded irrigation canals and extended the system to
the Suez Canal, bringing water to the new canal cities.
Massive projects were executed to modernize the infrastructure by building
bridges, paving roads and expanding railway lines.
So much money was spent by Ismail to finance his modernization schemes,
which the country couldn't really afford. Ismail, however, did secure
large amounts of loans from major European banks and imposed heavy taxes
on the people to meet his ambitious plans.
Unfortunately his endless visions led to the eventual bankrupcy of the
state and in 1877 Ismail couldn't even pay the interests of his debts so
had to sell Egypt's shares in the Suez Canal to the British government.
The next year an institution called Caisse de la Dette Public was formed
by the creditors to provide direct European management on Egypt's
finances. The body was representing the chief bondholding countries.
Besides, a Dual Control of Britain and France was set up in order to
supervise the revenues and expenditures of the state.
By pressures from the creditors, Ismail had accepted the entity of the
British and French in key ministries in his cabinet in 1878. Meanwhile,
the 'European' cabinet caused an outrage among the army officers and this
was one reason the first nationalist grouping, Al-Hezb Al-Watani, was
formed in 1879. This signaled a dissatisfaction feeling with the
government controlled by foreigners.
Consequently, Ismail dismissed the European cabinet in April.
Europeans finally put pressure on the Ottoman sultan to depose Ismail,
which was finally done in June 1879. He was instantly succeeded by his son
Tawfik who had fewer qualities and abilities than his father who died
later in exile in Istanbul in 1895.
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Tawfik succeeded his father Ismail, who was deposed by the
Ottoman sultan, in 1879. The same year saw the presentation of a new
constitutional draft by the then premier Sherif Pasha intended to give
more rights to citizens. The draft was rejected, and so Sherif Pasha
resigned and was substituted by Riyadh Pasha.
In 1879, the Anglo-French Dual Control was renewed and the Law of
liquidation was rendered in the next year. The law divided Egypt's
revenues in two parts: part to pay for the debts of the bondholders and
the other part for financing the Egyptian administration.
A blend of public and army resentment rose over the barefaced European
presence in the government and over new army promotion policies that
angered Egyptian army officers in particular.
The War Minister at that time proposed changes in the army to limit the
promotion of army officers to senior posts.
Ahmed Orabi, an unsatisfied Egyptian colonel, conducted the army
opposition. After gaining popularity and support from army officers, Orabi
presented a petition of complaint to Refki Pasha, the War Minister.
Instead of listening to Orabi, Refki Pasha had Orabi arrested but later
his regiment freed him.
Tawfik had to dismiss Refki over the crisis and appointed Barudi, a friend
to Orabi, in the position.
Since the move didn't bring any change in the state policy, Orabi took his
regiment in a near-coup to Khedive Tawfik's palace. In front of the
palace, Orabi requested the increase in the army force, constitution
amendments and a governmental reshuffle.
Khedive Tawfik had to yield to the demands so he replaced Riyadh Pasha by
the popular Sherif Pasha as prime minister.
The European powers were watching anxiously the developments in Egypt. In
January 1882, Britain and France sent a Joint Note in which they expressed
their support for the Khedive and opposed any move that might cripple his
powers in a way that could eventually harm the foreign interests.
The note caused nothing but a vehement reaction of the people.
The government fell again and Sherif Pasha was replaced by Barudi as prime
minister and Orabi was made a War Minister. By that, Tawfik seemed to have
lost control over the national movement that actually began to eclipse
him.
A conflict between Orabi and Tawfik forced the latter to finally bid for
help from the European powers which were already alarmed by the mounting
national movement.
Britain and France decided to interfere by sending their fleets to parade
off the coast of Alexandria, where Tawfik was present at that time.
Under the pressure of the foreign fleets anchoring off the coast,
sectarian riots broke out between Egyptians and the Greek minority in
Alexandria. The riots left a number of deaths.
On 11 July 1882, the British fleet bombarded Alexandria while French
troops rejected the move and withdrew back.
Instantly, Khedive Tawfik, who appeared to be satisfied with the
developments, declared Orabi is a rebel. From his side, Orabi declared the
Khedive is a traitor and rallied his army for the anticipated invasion of
the British troops.
The British army left a unit in Alexandria and sent other units through
Suez Canal, which defeated Orabi at the battle of El-Tal El-Kebir on 13
September 1882. |
Abbas II succeeded his father, Tawfik, as a Khedive when he
was only 17. Contrary to his father, Abbas showed nationalistic tendency
and had a desire to lessen the influence of the British in the country.
Sir Evelyn Barring, who now became Lord Cromer, resumed his attempt to
dominate Egypt's political life.
Abbas inaugurated his reign by dismissing the pro-British prime minister
and appointing a nationalist in his position but he was later forced by
Lord Cromer to appoint Riyadh Pasha following a controversy.
Abbas sympathized with the nationalist movement and had contacts with
Mustafa Kamel, a charismatic nationalist lawyer, who adopted the issue of
Egypt' independence.
The Khedive even supported nationalist figures financially and sent many
of them to Europe. His nationalist tendency and his encouragement for
those figures were meant to offset his powerlessness with the industrial
British.
Nevertheless, his attempts collided with Cromer's plans and the latter
eventually gained ascendancy over the Khedive.
When Abbas himself found the popularity of the nationalists rising at his
own expense, he began disengaging himself.
In 1895, and under pressures from Cromer, Mustafa Fahmy was appointed as
prime minister.
In 1896, British forces launched a military campaign on Sudan and in 1898
they defeated the radical Mahdist movement in Sudan. An Anglo-Egyptian
condominium was signed in 1899 to grant both parties a joint control on
Sudan and a titular authority for the Khedive over the province. On the
other hand, Cromer had an absolute power in Egypt. He abolished the corvée
system imposed on peasants. Under his control, the country became
financially solvent mainly because of the cotton revenues. However, he
discouraged industrialization and higher education to the advantage of the
British occupation, which transformed Egypt to a source for raw materials
for Britain.
For that reason, the Egyptian government directed its attention towards
agrarian and irrigation projects.
In 1902, the Nile Barrage at Asyut and the Aswan Dam were opened.
Thanks to cotton exports, the economy began recovering and a real estate
boom took part, which transformed cities of Cairo and Alexandria to models
of their European counterparts.
In 1904, the Entente Cordial agreement was concluded between Britain and
France. The agreement purported France's relinquishment of any whatsoever
claims in Egypt. The next year Abbas issued a decree, recognizing
Britain's special position in Egypt.
In 1906, Dinshway incident happened. Peasants beat British officers after
they accidentally killed a woman during their shooting trip. When fleeing,
a British officer died of sunstroke. The British prepared a tribunal, in
which they tried the Egyptian peasants. Some were executed and others were
flogged. The villagers were forced to watch the public implementation of
the sentences.
The brutality of the incident provoked the national feeling against the
Britons and incited Mustafa Kamel, the nationalist charismatic figure, to
launch a media campaign against the British occupation.
Sir Eldon Gorst replaced Cromer, who was already approaching retirement,
as a consul general.
Gorst was more sympathetic to the aspirations of the Egyptians. As an
Arabic language speaker, Gorst made good relations with the Khedive and
expressed readiness to meet much of the nationalistic demands.
In 1907, Mustafa Kamel founded the Nationalist Party and in 1908. He died
of tuberculosis and was succeeded by Mohamed Farid. The same year, Boutros
Ghali, a Copt, formed a new government.
Then the Egyptian University was opened by prince Fuad, later King Fuad,
and was named after him.
A number of parties were established in that atmosphere. In 1910 prime
minister Boutros Ghali was assassinated by a nationalist after Ghali
debated
the extension of Suez Canal concession before a government session.
Meanwhile, Gorst's policy -which was at odds with many British- brought
about his resignation in 1911.
Kitchener replaced Gorst as a British agent and consul general. Kitchener,
who previously served as a commander-in-chief and a sirdar, introduced a
number of restrictions over the authorities of the Khedive but he also
introduced a new legislative assembly. This marked a new parliamentary
life in Egypt.
In 1914, and after an assassination attempt, Abbas traveled to Istanbul
while the World War I broke out. Britain immediately declared Egypt as a
protectorate, deposed Khedive Abbas II, and appointed instead of him his
uncle, Hussein Kamel, under the title of Sultan.
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After World War I erupted in 1914, Britain carried out some steps to
strengthen its position in the war.
Hussein Kamel, Abbas's uncle, was appointed sultan of Egypt after the
deposition of Abbas by the British. They also imposed restrictions over
the political life of Egyptians. A British protectorate was finally
imposed on Egypt. These moves brought to an end the nominal control of
Egypt by the Ottomans.
On the other hand, Kitchener was replaced by Sir Henry McMahon as a High
Commissioner. The martial laws were introduced and the military court
began trying civilians. In 1916, Sir Reginald Wingate was appointed
British High Commissioner in Egypt.
In 1917, Hussein Kamel died and was succeeded by King Fuad, his brother,
and also son of Ismail Pasha.
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Fuad ascended the throne after the death of his brother,
Hussein Kamel, in 1917.
Near the end of World War I, the national movement mounted in aspiration
to restore political rights and end the British protectorate on Egypt.
The war ended in 11 November 1918. US President Wilson's postwar Fourteen
Points declaration gave hope to nationalists in ridding the occupation.
The declaration recognized the self-determination rights for any nation in
the world.
King Farouk ruled (1936 - 1952)
King Farouk succeeded his father, King Fuad, after his death in 1936. |
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